Formulating the ideal Carnot cycle, establishing the upper limit of heat engine efficiency, and founding …

Dismantling the concept of 'permanent gases' by liquefying chlorine in a sealed glass tube, launching …

Conceiving the world's first mechanical automatic calculator using the method of finite differences, establishing mechanical …

Deriving the mathematical amplitude coefficients for reflection and transmission of s- and p-polarized light at …

Michael Faraday constructs the first continuous electric motor prototype.

Demonstrating that an electric current deflects a magnetic compass needle, unifying electricity and magnetism into …

André-Marie Ampère formulates the law governing magnetic forces between current-carrying wires.

Discovering the constant molar heat capacity of solid elements (3R), providing an empirical atomic mass …

Synthesizing Huygens' wavelets with Young's interference, leading to the Poisson-Arago spot, Fresnel integrals, and the …