Critiqued Newtonian absolute space and time, formulating Mach's Principle.

Hertz proves cathode rays pass through aluminum foils, demonstrating subatomic penetration.

Published comprehensive treatise on electron electrodynamics and local time.

Demonstrated cathode rays pass through thin aluminum and gold foils.

Mapped lithium, sodium, and potassium line series using high-resolution diffraction gratings.

Published refined estimate of fundamental electron charge e in Scientific Transactions.

Conducted rotating steel disk experiments testing ether drag near moving masses.

Lorentz formulates classical electron theory, uniting electromagnetic fields with microscopic charges.

Published full treatise on wavenumber spectral term series and Rydberg constant.